The Global Habanera
Perhaps the most recognizable piece from Bizet’s opera, and easily one of the most famous arias in the entire operatic repertoire, is “L’amour est un oiseau rebelle” (Track 1) from Act I, known simply as the “Habanera.” In this scene, Carmen charms curious onlookers with her daring, free-spirited philosophy of love. The term habanera refers to the Cuban contradanza, a genre of dance music popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries, based upon a simple rhythmic unit in 2/4 meter:
In the aria, this rhythm is first articulated in the cellos accompanying Carmen’s opening phrases before being picked up in turn by the soprano and chorus. Though the name of the dance derives from the city of Havana, Cuba, the form’s origins are multiple and disputed. The current consensus suggests that it began with the English country dance, which spread across Europe in the 18th century. From there, the contredanse—as it became known in France—made its way across the Atlantic ocean to Cuba through one of the following ways: settlers from Spain brought it directly to the island, which remained a Spanish colony from roughly 1492 until its independence in 1902; or French exiles from Saint-Domingue (current-day Haiti), which saw the colony’s enslaved population successfully overturn French imperial rule in the territory between 1791 and 1804, brought their version of the contredanse when they fled to Cuba.
Either way, the story did not end there. Once in Cuba, the dance form was reinvigorated primarily by Black musicians on the island. It is widely believed that the characteristic syncopation of the habanera rhythm, which features an accented upbeat in the middle of the bar, likely comes from African-derived rhythmic forms. The habanera—a term coined when European sailors introduced the dance to their home countries, where it became popular with composers, particularly in France and Spain—eventually influenced the development of additional dance forms like the Cuban danzón and Argentine tango, whose basic rhythmic unit is nearly identical to that of the habanera.
When writing Carmen, Bizet adapted the melody for “L’amour est un oiseau rebelle” from a popular habanera of the era, which he believed to be a Spanish folk song. It was not: The melody was lifted from a composition by Basque composer Sebastián Yradier (1809–65) called “El Arreglito.” When he discovered that it was not in fact a folk song but a relatively recent cabaret song, Bizet added a note to the vocal score of his opera citing the proper source.
Although it uses a borrowed melody and popular rhythmic structure, Carmen’s famous habanera diverges from its template in several ways. First, this aria is the only piece in the opera with text written by the composer himself and not by his librettists Meilhac and Halévy. Second, the lyrics of typical habaneras usually assume the perspectives of men, especially sailors and fisherman, who reflect upon their work and romantic relationships. Rather than mirror the longings of men in search of an idealized beauty, Carmen sings the aria as an alluring woman whose desire cannot be so easily contained by the men who pursue her. And finally, the contredanse and habanera are social dances traditionally performed by couples facing each other in a long line or in a square formation. Carmen’s habanera exhibits just the opposite: a woman dancing by herself, for herself, and for the amusement—not benefit—of those watching.